Cytomel thyroid hormone for replacement therapy

Cytomel is not a steroid, but more a of a cutting aid. It's a synthetic form of the thyroid hormone tri-iodio-thyronine or T3, made up of a metabolite of the amino acid tyrosine and 3 iodine ions. In the body it in turn is made from another hormone, T4, which is secreted by the thyroid under influence of the pituitary hormone TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone). If a shortage of either TSH or T4 is noted, usually doctors may opt for a replacement therapy. These days the most common prescription is synthetic T4 (Synthroid), but in more severe cases of permanent thyroid dysfunction, the choice is given to Cytomel. Simply because T4 is mostly active through its conversion to T3 and T3 is 4-5 times stronger than T4 on a mcg for mcg basis.

In bodybuilding circles Cytomel is mostly used as fat-loss drug. Thyroid hormones are often referred to as the metabolic regulators of the body. High levels of T3 speed up the metabolism of an individual, allowing him to burn more calories and use calories more sufficiently. Generally ectopmorphic body-types have very high thyroid levels and in some cases a slight undiagnosed form of hyperthyroidism. Both hyper-and hypothyroidism can have severe consequences on an individual, such as goiters and other nasty stuff, so messing with your thyroid is not something. As with insulin, misuse of this compound can leave you dependent on exogenous T3 for the rest of your life. So some caution and research is required before putting Cytomel in your body. Generally cycles should be limited to 4-6 weeks tops,  recommend 3 and alternating cycles with 3-week cycles of Clenbuterol. But most importantly, to avoid a crash or a shock to the thyroid function doses need to be built up over time and tapered off again. More so for Cytomel than for any other drug in existence.

Cytomel is not a drug to start off on, and that use of milder drugs like T4 (Synthroid) or triacana can help ease a person into the use of T3. T4 is basically similar to Cytomel except that its weaker. Something that users normally compensate with higher doses and sends them down a similar lane as simply using Cytomel. Agreed, Cytomel is NOT a drug for beginners, but with adequate research, experience with diet and some self-control, why cytomel shouldn't be the first thyoid compound used. But for recreational users looking for a fatburner. Cytomel is much more powerful, but Clenbuterol is a lot safer for use. The results are easier to maintain with clenbuterol as well. Negative feedback in the thyroid may decrease natural levels of T3 in the body, causing a decrease of metabolic rate after coming off a cycle of T3. That can cause a rebound effect during which a lot of weight is gained back.

 Cytomel is the popularly recognized brand name for the drug Liothyronine Sodium. This is not an anabolic steroid but a thyroid hormone. It is used medically to treat cases of thyroid insufficiency, obesity, certain metabolic disorders and fatigue. Specifically this drug is a pharmaceutical preparation of the natural thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T-3). When administered, Cytomel increases the patient's metabolism. The result is an increased rate of cellular activity (noted by a more rapid utilization of carbohydrates, fats and proteins). Bodybuilders are particularly attracted to this drug for its ability to burn off body excess fat. Most often utilized during contest preparation, one can greatly decrease the amount of stored fat without being forced to severely restrict calories. To this end Cytomel is commonly used in conjunction with Clenbuterol and can produce extremely dramatic results. This combination has become very popular in recent years, no doubt responsible for many "ripped" on-stage physiques. It is also noted by many that when thyroid hormones are taken in conjunction with steroids, an increased anabolic effect can be seen (noticeably greater than if the steroids are used alone). This is likely due to faster utilization of proteins by the body, increasing the rate for new muscle accumulation.

One should take caution if considering using this drug. Cytomel comes with an extensive list of warnings and precautions which are not to be ignored. Side effects include, but are not limited to, heart palpitations, agitation, shortness of breath, irregular heartbeat, sweating, nausea, headaches, and psychic/metabolic disorders. It is a powerful hormone, and one that could potentially alter the normal functioning of the body if misused. When administering Cytomel, one must remember to increase the dosage slowly. Generally one 25mcg tablet is taken on the first day, and the dosage is thereafter increased by one tablet every three of four days for a maximum dosage of 100mcg. This will help the body adjust to the increased thyroid hormone, hopefully avoiding any sudden "shock" to the system. The daily dose is also to be split evenly throughout the day, in an effort to keep blood levels steadier. Women are more sensitive to the side effects of Cytomel than men, and usually opt to take no more than 50mcg daily.

It is important to stress that a cycle should last no longer than 6 weeks and it should never be halted abruptly. As slowly as the dosage was built up it should also be lowered, one tablet every 3-4 days. Taking Cytomel for too long and/or at too high a dosage can result in a permanent thyroid deficiency. After doing such, one might need to be treated with a drug like Cytomel for life. It is also a good idea to first consult your physician and have your thyroid function tested. An undiagnosed hyper function would not mix well with the added hormone. An athlete should also be sure never to purchase an injectable form of the drug. It is generally an emergency room product, much too powerful for athletic use. Since T-3 is the most powerful thyroid hormone athletes are using, this is generally not the starting point for a beginner. Before using such a powerful item, it is a good idea to become familiar with a weaker substance. An in-between point is Synthroid (Synthetic T-4), still weaker in action than Cytomel. Once the user is ready however, the fat burning effect of this hormone can be extremely dramatic.

Human growth hormone to the treatment of the wasting syndrome of HIV/AIDS

Human growth hormone (HGH) is a naturally occurring polypeptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland and is essential for body growth. Daily secretion of HGH increases throughout childhood, peaking during adolescence, and steadily declining thereafter. In 1985, synthetic HGH was developed and approved by the FDA for specific uses. However, it is commonly abused by athletes, bodybuilders, and aging adults for its ability increase muscle mass and decrease body fat, as well as its purported potential to improve athletic performance and reverse the effects of aging.

Several FDA-approved injectable HGH preparations are available by prescription from a supervising physician for clearly and narrowly defined indications. In children, HGH is approved for the treatment of poor growth due to Turner’s syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome and chronic renal insufficiency, HGH insufficiency/deficiency, for children born small for gestational age, and for idiopathic short stature. Accepted medical uses in adults include but are not limited to the treatment of the wasting syndrome of HIV/AIDS and HGH deficiency. Dependent on the clinical presentation, pediatric dosages range from 24-100 microgram/kilogram/day and adult dosages from 0.9-25 microgram/kilogram/day, dependent on product. The FDA-approved injectable formulations are available as liquid preparations, or as powder with a diluent for reconstitution.

Using recombinant DNA technology, two forms of synthetic HGH were developed, Somatropin and Somatrem. Somatropin is identical to the endogenous pituitary-derived HGH, whereas Somatrem has an extra amino acid on the N-terminus. Both synthetic forms have similar biological actions and potencies as the endogenous HGH polypeptide. Synthetic HGH also is chemically indistinguishable from the naturally occurring hormone in blood and urine tests.

HGH binds to growth hormone receptors present on cells throughout the body. HGH functions to regulate body composition, fluid homeostasis, glucose and lipid metabolism, skeletal muscle and bone growth, and possibly cardiac functioning. Sleep, exercise, and stress all increase the secretion of HGH.

The use of HGH is associated with several adverse effects including edema, carpal tunnel syndrome, joint pain, muscle pain, and abnormal skin sensations (e.g., numbness and tingling). It may also increase the growth of preexisting malignant cells, and increase the possibility of developing diabetes.

HGH is administered by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. The circulating half-life of HGH is relatively short half-life (20-30 minutes), while its biological half-life is much longer (9-17 hours) due to its indirect effects.

Human growth hormone is illicitly used as an anti-aging agent, to improve athletic performance, and for bodybuilding purposes. It is marketed, distributed, and illegally prescribed off-label to aging adults to replenish declining hGH levels and reverse age-related bodily deterioration. It is also abused for its ability to alter body composition by reducing body fat and increasing skeletal muscle mass. It is often used in combination with other performance enhancing drugs, such as anabolic steroids. Athletes also use it to improve their athletic performance, although the ability of HGH to increase athletic performance is debatable.

Athletes, bodybuilders, and aging adults are the primary abusers of HGH. Because the illicit use of synthetic HGH is difficult to detect, its use in sports is believed to be widespread. Over the past few years, numerous professional athletes have admitted to using HGH. Bodybuilders, as well as celebrities also purportedly use it for its ability to alter body composition. Aging adults looking to reverse the effects of aging are increasingly using synthetic HGH.

Growth hormone reduces liver fat in HIV-infected patients

In a preliminary study, HIV-infected patients with excess abdominal fat who received the growth hormone-releasing hormone analog Tesamorelin for 6 months experienced modest reductions in liver fat a theme issue on HIV/AIDS. Patients infected with HIV demonstrate a high prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, estimated at 30 percent to 40 percent. The issue is being released early to coincide with the International AIDS Conference.

In human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, abdominal fat accumulation is associated with ectopic (out of place) fat accumulation in the liver. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) may progress to end-stage liver disease and liver cancer. To date, there are no approved pharmacological strategies to reduce liver fat. Takara L. Stanley of Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, and colleagues randomly assigned 50 antiviral-treated HIV-infected men and women with abdominal fat accumulation to receive Tesamorelin (n=28), or placebo (n=22), subcutaneously daily for 6 months.

The researchers found a modest but statistically significant decrease in liver fat with Tesamorelin. Hepatic lipid to water percentage (a measure of liver fat), decreased in the Tesamorelin group (median, -2.0 percent) compared with placebo (median, 0.9 percent). In addition, there was a significant reduction in abdominal fat: the average change was -9.9 percent with Tesamorelin vs 6.6 percent with placebo.

"The decrease in liver fat in this study suggests that strategies to reduce visceral adiposity merit further investigation in HIV-infected patients with NAFLD, a condition for which there are no approved treatments. Importantly, NAFLD is associated with visceral adiposity and other metabolic abnormalities in HIV," the authors write. AIDS is the sixth leading cause of death among people aged 25 - 44 in the United States. This is an improvement since it was the number one killer in 1995. At the end of 2010, an estimated 91,500 people in the UK were living with HIV. Of these, around 1 in 4 (22,000 in total) did not know they were infected.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 34 million people in the world are living with HIV. The virus is particularly widespread in sub-Saharan African countries, such as South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
AIDS is caused by HIV infection. The virus attacks the immune system leaving the individual susceptible to life-threatening infections and cancers. Common bacteria, yeast, parasites, and viruses that usually do not cause serious disease in people with healthy immune systems can turn deadly for AIDS patients. HIV is found in all the body fluids including saliva, nervous system tissue and spinal fluid, blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, which is the liquid that comes out before ejaculation, vaginal secretions, tears and breast milk. Only blood, semen, and breast milk have been shown to transmit infection to others. The virus is transmitted by sexual contact including unprotected oral, vaginal, and anal sex and via transfusion of contaminated blood that contains HIV.

Another mode of transmission is sharing needles or injections with HIV infected individuals. A pregnant woman can transmit the virus to her unborn baby through their shared blood circulation, or a nursing mother can transmit it to her baby in her breast milk. HIV infection does not spread by casual contact, mosquitoes, touching or hugging.
Those at highest risk include injection drug users who share needles, babies born to mothers with HIV (especially if the mother had not received anti- HIV therapy during pregnancy), those engaging in unprotected vaginal or anal sex with HIV positive individuals, and those who received blood transfusions or clotting products between 1977 and 1985 (before screening for HIV became standard practice).

HIV infection may cause no symptoms for a decade or longer. At this stage carriers may transmit the infection to others unknowingly. If the infection is not detected and treated, the immune system gradually weakens and AIDS develops. Acute HIV infection takes a few weeks to months to become a non-symptomatic HIV infection. Then it becomes early symptomatic HIV infection and later it progresses to AIDS.

Anabolic steroids for the treatment of weight loss in HIV-infected people

Individuals with HIV infection often lose weight during the course of their disease. Furthermore, low serum concentrations of testosterone are common in individuals with HIV infection, particularly those with weight loss. Treatment of weight loss with anabolic steroids in HIV-infected individuals may be beneficial. Randomized controlled trials that compared the use of an anabolic steroid to placebo to treat weight loss in adults with HIV were included. Randomized controlled trials that compared the use of anabolic steroids to placebo for the treatment of weight loss in adults with HIV were selected. Change from baseline in lean body mass or in body weight was reported as on outcome measure.

Two reviewers independently assessed the trials for quality of randomization, blinding, withdrawals and adequacy of allocation concealment. For continuous data, weighted mean differences (WMD) were calculated. For dichotomous outcomes, risk differences, were calculated. Because of uncertainty as to whether consistent true effects exist in such different populations and treatments, the authors decided a priori to use random effects models for all outcomes.

Thirteen trials met the inclusion criteria. Two hundred ninety-four individuals randomized to anabolic steroid therapy and 238 individuals randomized to placebo were included in the analysis of efficacy for change from baseline in lean body mass. Three hundred forty-three individuals randomized to anabolic steroid and 286 randomized to placebo were included in the analysis of efficacy for change from baseline in body weight. The mean methodological quality of the included studies was 4.1, of a maximum 5 points. Although significant heterogeneity was present for both outcomes, the average change in lean body mass was 1.3 kg (95% CI: 0.6, 2.0), while the average change in total body weight was 1.1 kg (95% CI: 0.3, 2.0). A total of eight deaths occurred during the treatment period; four in the anabolic steroid treatment groups and four in the placebo-treatment groups (risk difference 0.00, 95% CI -0.03, 0.03). The risk difference for withdrawals or discontinuations of study medication due to adverse events was 0.00 (95% CI: -0.02, 0.03).

Although the results of the trials were heterogeneous, on average, the administration of anabolic steroids appeared to result in a small increase in both lean body mass and body weight as compared with placebo. While these results suggest that anabolic steroids may be useful in the treatment of weight loss in HIV infected individuals, due to limitations, treatment recommendations cannot be made. Further information is required regarding the long-term benefit and adverse effects of anabolic steroid use, the specific populations for which anabolic steroid therapy may be most beneficial and the optimal regime. In addition, the correlation of improvement in lean body mass with more clinically relevant endpoints, such as physical functioning and survival, needs to be determined. Testosterone has been demonstrated to increase muscle mass and lean body mass in testosterone-deficient but otherwise healthy men.
Individuals with HIV infection often lose weight and have low blood levels of testosterone; thus, the use of anabolic steroids in the treatment of weight loss in individuals with HIV infection may be beneficial.

The purpose of this review was to evaluate anabolic steroids as a means of treatment of weight loss in individuals with HIV infection.
However, the results were not consistent among individual trials and the average increase was small and may not be clinically relevant.
Furthermore, the results need to be interpreted with caution as this meta-analysis was limited due to small sample sizes, short duration of treatment and of follow-up; and heterogeneity of the study populations, the anabolic interventions, and concomitant therapies.
Furthermore, low serum concentrations of testosterone are common in individuals with HIV infection, particularly those with weight loss. Our objectives were to assess the efficacy and safety of anabolic steroids for the treatment of weight loss in adults with HIV infection. Androgen deficiency is a common endocrine abnormality among men and women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Low testosterone concentrations are associated with lower CD4 cell count, advanced stage of illness, medication use, and weight loss. Signs and symptoms may be nonspecific. The most useful laboratory indicator is the serum bio available (free) testosterone concentration. A number of different testosterone preparations for treatment of androgen deficiency in HIV-infected men now exist. Administration of testosterone significantly increases weight and lean body mass, energy, quality of life, and depression scores in HIV-infected men with low testosterone levels. Newer trans dermal and gel preparations provide more-consistent steady-state dosing but are not as well tested, and sufficient testosterone concentrations may not be achieved with their use. Androgen deficiency is also common among HIV-infected women. Preliminary studies suggest that use of physiological testosterone administration, to achieve testosterone levels within the normal range, is of benefit in HIV-infected women, but further studies are necessary to define the therapeutic role of androgen therapy in this population.

Use of Testosterone and Anabolic Steroids in Patients Who Have HIV

Decreases in energy, sense of well-being, libido, muscle strength and muscle mass occur often in patients who have persistent diseases, such as HIV infection. When these symptoms were first recognized in HIV-positive patients, they were thought to be manifestations of HIV infection but may possibly be associated with hypothyroidism. Most HIV-infected patients who have hypogonadism have secondary or central hypogonadism, not prime testicular failure. In HIV-infected hypogonadal men, administration of testosterone appears to increase overweight-free mass, muscle mass, and quality of living (increased libido, erectile role, and sense of well-being). Similarly, anabolic steroid hormones appear to increase lean body weight and decrease fat content. Although androgens have been used for the treatment of HIV-related wasting and for hypogonadism, many questions remain unanswered, including those regarding the large-term effects, if any, of suppression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, as well as the long-term possibilities of malignancy of the prostate and of hepatocellular cancer. Appropriate doses of the various preparations of testosterone and anabolic steroids have not been determined. For several years, androgens particularly testosterone have been used for the treatment of HIV-related wasting. Despite a substantial cadaver of literature on the topic, there remain a big number of unanswered questions. Perhaps the best place to begin a review of the role of androgens in counteracting wasting is to recall the standard physiology of testosterone.

The testes have 2 principal functions - spermatogenesis and the secretion of testosterone. Spermatogenesis is a function of the Sertoli cells and is stimulated by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which is secreted by the pituitary gland. Negative feedback on the pituitary gland to command the release of FSH is provided by the hormone inhibin, which is thought to be secreted by either the Sertoli cells or the cells of the spermatogenic tubules.
The compound of testosterone begins with the mobilization of cholesterol by the steroid acute regulator protein. The dominant steps implicated in synthesizing testosterone from cholesterol are the development of pregnenolone, 17- -hydroxypregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and testosterone. A less dominant pathway involves the formation of progesterone from pregnenolone, followed by 17-hydroxyprogesterone, androstenedione, and testosterone.

Regardless of the pathway, the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of testosterone is the primary formation of pregnenolone from cholesterol. This movement is catalyzed by the enzyme P-450scc (cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme) and is inducible by luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the pituitary gland. Once released from the testes, testosterone may be converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in various target cells by the enzyme 5 -reductase. Testosterone may also be converted to estradiol by the enzyme P-450arom (aromatase). Testosterone regulates the secreting of LH through a negative feedback structure. Under normal circumstances, the pituitary gland is very sensitive to the feedback provided by testosterone. In patients who have low blood levels of testosterone, blood levels of LH are increased. Testosterone also acts on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis to suppress the stimulating action of gonadotropin-releasing hormone on the pituitary release of LH.

HGH and human immunodeficiency virus

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). The HIV retrovirus may be passed from one individual to another when infected blood, semen, vaginal secretions or other bodily fluids come in contact with an uninfected person's broken skin or mucous membranes. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection and are fit and well. Some of these people will develop AIDS as a end result of their HIV infection. Growth hormone is a popular bodybuilding and performance enhancing aid, and the use of recombinant human growth hormone (HGH, or simply GH) to treat various conditions in HIV infection has been debated with excitement for years. Indeed it is licensed for the treatment of wasting syndrome in advanced stages of AIDS.
Other than in the treatment of wasting malady, results from the studies using rHGH to treat cadaver changes associated with HIV and/or drugs used to treat HIV have been very favourable. One which has been studied extensively is the use of rHGH in reducing HIV-associated adipose redistribution syndrome (HARS). However, the positive effects of HGH treatment in HIV may be more direct. Several studies have proposed that rHGH may bolster the immune structure in ways that might better clinical outcomes in HIV.

HCV antibody

All patients who analysis categorical for HCV antibody should have HCV RNA testing performed. As noted above, if patients have refusing results on HCV antibody tests but persistently abnormal transmigrates or suspected acute or persistent infection, HCV RNA testing should be performed. The delimitation of chronic HCV infection is the presence of HCV RNA 6 months after the estimated time of infection. If a patient is HCV antibody definite but HCV RNA negative, the patient has cleared the HCV and does not have persistent HCV infection. Augmentin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic which destroy bacteria. It is active against many aerobic.
There are quantitative RNA tests and qualitative RNA tests. Although both types of RNA tests are greatly sensitive and specific, the qualitative tests can detect reduce levels of viremia than the quantitative tests. The choice of RNA exam can be significant. The quantitative RNA tests will be reported as a value, with a measured numeral of universal units per milliliter (IU/mL). Quantitative tests are useful for determining the prognosis of HCV treatment and then monitoring while on HCV treatment. Qualitative RNA tests will be reported as a present-day or away value, but without a numerical value. They are useful for serial testing during suspected acute infection and for determining whether spontaneous viral clearance has occurred, a sustained virological response has occurred during treatment, or a relapse has occurred after treatment.

Hormones and HIV infection

While both men and women involvement many of the same symptoms, women regularly must contend with some distinctively female signs of HIV infection such as:
    Persisting or strict vaginal infections particularly vaginal yeast infections.
    Pap smears that indicate cervical dysplasia or other abnormal changes.
    Pelvic infections such as pelvic inflaming infection (PID.)
Although women with HIV frequently experience these women’s health conditions, women without HIV also experience vaginal infections, deviant Pap smears, and pelvic infections.

Other signs and symptoms that may indicate HIV infection contain:
    Genital warts
    Genital ulcers
    Severe mucosal herpes infections
Regularly, within a few weeks of infection, both men and women experience flu-like symptoms. Others do not experience signs or symptoms of HIV or AIDS until several years later. This makes HIV testing required for those with current or previous high risk behaviors.
An insulin-like growth element (IGF) is a polypeptide that has a molecular structure similar to insulin. There are two types of IGF: IGF-1 is made and secreted primarily in your liver, and helps modify the cycle of cell growth, division and death. IGF-1 is critical to fetal development and growth during childhood. IGF-2 is secreted by your brain, kidneys, pancreas, and muscles, and is most dynamic in a baby's growth in the womb. IGFs are interesting because the receptor for these hormones are expressed on many types of cancer cells and new biologic therapies targeting these receptors are in advanced clinical trial development. Several hormones play a critical role in exercise in popular and strength training in particular. Testosterone, cultivation hormone and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) provide strength and muscle growth stimulus; cortisol, epinephrine and nor epinephrine and glucagon command access to fat and glucose fuels by manipulating the release of stored fuel when needed in addition to other important functions; and insulin provides the storage impetus for the fuels derived from the food we eat. Getting these hormones to work so that you can maximize muscle and strength is one of the secrets of natural mass training.

What are the symptoms of HIV in women?

Symptoms that could attend to as advice signals of HIV infection may go ignored because many women do not perceive themselves at danger. Symptoms include recurrent yeast infections (vaginal candidiasis), pelvic inflaming disease, abnormal changes or dyspepsia (growth and presence of precancerous cells) in cervical tissue, genital ulcers, genital warts, and severe mucosa herpes infections may also accompany HIV infection in women.

It is possible for a personally infected with HIV to show no signs of infection. For women, the most common symptoms of exposure to the HIV virus are frequent or severe vaginal infections, abnormal PAP smears or pelvic infections (PID) that are hard to manage.

Within a few weeks of having been infected, many people have flu-like symptoms. However, in some cases, symptoms do not show for many years. As the infection progresses, some symptoms can include: swollen lymph glands in the neck, underarm, or groin area, recurrent fever including "night sweats," rapid weight loss for no apparent reason, constant tiredness, diarrhea and decreased appetite, snowy spots or untypical blemishes in the way out.

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) pandemic is on the increase with the highest burden in sub-Saharan Africa. This descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in 2008 to assess the knowledge, self-perception of risk of contracting HIV infection and risky sexual practices among patients attending some out-patient clinics at the University Teaching Hospital, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. The knowledge on the modes of transmission and methods of prevention of HIV was high. Although, 53.0% of the study participants perceived themselves not to be at risk of contracting HIV infection, 80.6% were engaged in risky sexual practices within a year preceding the study. Premarital sex is often associated with high risk sexual behaviour such as early age of initiation, multiple partners and inconsistent condom use. Evidence shows that such sexual behaviour pre-disposes to sexually transmitted diseases including HIV.

Objectives: This paper tried to investigate the correlates of premarital sexual behavior among male and female business process outsourcing (BPO) employees to highlight the gender differences that exist in relation to it. Materials and Methods: Data were collected from 526 unmarried BPO employees during behavioural surveillance survey in Chennai, in the year 2009.
Results: The results showed that about one-third of respondents (males - 39.6%, females - 26.1%) had experienced premarital sex. Men reported having had their first sexual intercourse at 12 years and women at 16 years of age. While the prevalence of premarital sex was found to be high, the percentage using a condom during last sex was also high, especially, among the female employees (82.4%). Logistic regression showed that monthly individual income, work in shifts, migration, peer influence and friends with previous sexual experience were significant predictors of premarital sex among the male BPO employees.

The risk of HIV transmission

The risk of HIV transmission during anal intercourse may be around 18 times greater than during vaginal intercourse, according to the results of a meta-analysis published online ahead of print in the International Journal of Epidemiology.

Moreover, as well as this empirical work, the researchers from Imperial College and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine carried out a modelling exercise to estimate the impact that HIV treatment has on infectiousness during anal intercourse. They estimate that the risk of transmission from a man with suppressed viral load may be reduced by as much as 99.9%.

Anal intercourse drives the HIV epidemic amongst gay and bisexual men. Moreover a substantial proportion of heterosexuals have anal sex but tend to use condoms less frequently than for vaginal sex, and this may contribute to heterosexual epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere.

Rebecca Baggaley and colleagues conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis (an analysis of all the medical research that meets predefined requirements) of the risk of HIV transmission during unprotected anal intercourse. The same authors have already conducted similar reviews of the transmission risk during vaginal sex and oral sex.

HIV infection and muscle mass

Anabolic steroids are drugs derived from the male hormone testosterone. They promote muscle growth and increase lean body mass. Although anabolic steroids have many approved medical uses, they are abused by some athletes and others seeking to improve performance and physical appearance. These non medical uses are illegal and carry many health hazards.

Anabolic steroids are often used by people who weight train to improve the effects of training and for aesthetic reasons. They are usually used in four-week cycles, followed by a period off "treatment". Anabolic steroids are artificial (synthetic) versions of the male hormone testosterone that help build muscle. They also enhance masculine characteristics.

Because they can help the body to form lean muscle, they are sometimes used to treat wasting and weight loss caused by HIV, and doctors sometimes prescribe them to people experiencing fat loss from the limbs because of lipodystrophy. Testosterone supplements are also used to treat low testosterone levels which can develop in people with HIV due to HIV infection, some other infections, anti-HIV drugs and other medicines.

The anabolic steroids have been studied as a treatment for wasting caused by HIV, and have been shown to be safe and effective, helping the formation of lean muscle mass. To be most effective, anabolic steroid treatment should be combined with an exercise programme of resistance (weight) training. Studies have mostly been restricted to men because of concerns about the side-effects of steroid treatment for women.

Anabolic steroids can increase levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol and other side-effects, so their use should be closely monitored particularly if you are taking a protease inhibitor or have any risk factors for heart disease.